the threat of race: reflections on racial neoliberalism pdf

Informed consent was gained from all participants. So the children told me this information”, and Naeva’s (Africa, PV) daughters were present when their mother experienced racial abuse as described previously. For example, Banou (Africa, PV) indicated that her children had experienced discrimination at school: “some people there, telling them that their skin colour is not shining enough. 2014;110:10–7. Fourthly, education for refugees and asylum seekers about anti-discrimination legislation and policy in Australia may assist in helping new arrivals understand their rights and protections. Finally, adequate funding for appropriate counselling and support services around issues of discrimination is crucial – the compounding impact of discrimination for those who have fled persecution warrants specialist support expertise. Examining how people respond to discrimination helps to further understand - and potentially interrupt - the pathways through which discrimination harms health [58, 59]. Of these, 55 (60%) reported that this had occurred within the last year, and 38 (42%) more than a year ago, with 2 people reporting discrimination in both timeframes. Cockerham WC: Elsevier Science; 2016. Am J Community Psychol. Especially if I go to the bed, if this memory comes to my brain I will not go to sleep; I will lose my sleep. I could say maybe 95 percent of people in my opinion were good with their good behaviour.”. 1998;51(11):1171–8. Participants also discussed more general emotional reactions. Fozdar and Torezani suggest that some refugees may respond by considering discrimination to be an individual phenomenon, rather than systematic, and therefore less damaging. A further cognitive response strategy employed by a number of participants was framing discrimination as not unique to Australia and therefore that their new country was not a source of particular harm to their health. Google Scholar. Noh et al., examining experiences of discrimination for a sample of South East Asian refugees in Canada, also highlight the importance of cultural norms and social contexts in examining the health protective effects of ways of responding to discrimination [51]. Hadley and Patil using a multi-item measure found that 52% of their sample of refugees from Africa and Eastern Europe resettled in the USA reported experiencing racism [71]. Introduction to International Relations. More Catalogs. There were some limitations to the study. Journal of Vocational Education & Training. We also note the evidence of underreporting in this study, potentially due to issues of shame, social desirability, a ‘politeness imperative’ or perceived expectation to engage discourses of gratitude in describing resettlement experiences [39, 72]. Refuge: Canada’s J Refug. J Health Soc Behav. 2005;57(3):148–60. J Immigr Minor Health. As part of a broader study of housing, social inclusion and health, surveys were completed by 423 adult refugees and asylum seekers living in South Australia who had been in Australia for up to 7 years. 2013;15(1):141–8. Moreover, for Naeva, a Muslim woman from Africa, the intersecting categories of skin colour, religion and gender were salient in a verbal attack from a stranger in the street. Article  These women described unwelcome staring and verbal attacks in the street and at the local park, for example Geeti recounted “sometimes when cars pass by me and they see that I wear headscarf, they insult me…that hurts a lot” (Middle East, PV). These experiences occurred in a range of settings and included incivility, threats and physical assault as well as unequal access to resources, and involved intersecting categories of visa or immigration status, race/ethnicity, culture, religion and gender. Interviews were conducted by 4 female researchers, none of whom were migrants – the potential relevance of this for disclosure of discrimination is discussed below. In this paper for brevity we use ‘refugee’ and ‘asylum seeker’ but acknowledge the complex identities subsumed under these terms. Int Migr Rev. PubMed Google Scholar. 2008;21(2):166–91. Discrimination featured in the resettlement experiences of over 1 in 5 survey respondents and over half of the interviewees – although this is likely an underestimate - and there was also evidence of vicarious discrimination. These reviews highlight the complex and multiple pathways through which discrimination can affect health, including physiological responses, internalisation of negative stereotypes, damaging coping behaviours (such as drug and alcohol abuse), physical violence, and unequal access to resources. Journal of Social Policy. A short summary of this paper. Rachel didn’t understand exactly what she was saying but said: “maybe she thought we were Muslims”. Am J Orthop. [6, 9, 12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21]). Importantly, we do not use ‘race’ to refer to biological aspects, but rather race/ethnicity is used to indicate a person’s affiliation with a particular ethnic group, often but not always associated with country of origin, while culture refers to shared systems of meaning making, which are learnt and shared across generations and sometimes includes religious affiliation [7]. When you Afghani guys came to Australia, they make a lot of problems.”. Guerin PB, Guerin B, Elmi FH. Psychol Bull. Participants were also asked their level of agreement in relation to control (“I feel in control of my life”) and hope (“I feel hopeful about the future”) (disagree a lot, disagree a bit, don’t agree or disagree, agree a bit, and agree a lot – categorised for analysis to agree a bit/a lot v disagree a lot/a bit/don’t agree or disagree). It didn’t affect me anyway” (Esron, Africa, male, PV), and “I tried to handle the situation and not to think about it and process that and not to put any bad effects on me” (Payam, Middle East, male, TV). Participants also observed the sometimes covert nature of discrimination, which could make it harder to ‘name’, and which may also lead to underreporting. The survey also included items for trust (“to what extent do you agree that most people can be trusted”) and belonging (“to what extent do you have a sense of belonging in Australia”) (not at all, only slightly, to a moderate extent, and to a great extent – dichotomised for analysis into not at all/only slightly versus moderate/great extent). 2014;49(2):171–93. The survey also found lower levels of trust, control, hope and belonging amongst those who had experienced discrimination and similar links were evident in the interviews. For us -- you know, there is no facilities for us”. J Appl Soc Psychol. Quayle A, Sonn CC. Read online books for free new release and bestseller In: Liamputtong P, editor. The organisations providing cash and in-kind co-contributions to the project were members of the Reference Group, offering assistance in the design of instruments and recruitment of participants. Discrimination is a well-known social determinant of health, and so experiences of discrimination in countries of resettlement have the potential to exacerbate negative health and wellbeing (hereafter ‘health’) outcomes. Du Bois and the Race Concept at Midcentury. Pedersen A, Attwell J, Heveli D. Prediction of negative attitudes toward Australian asylum seekers: false beliefs, nationalism, and self-esteem. In. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Attempts by participants to actively avoid racism by specifically noting that they were not Muslim, or by removing visible markers associated with Islam - highlighted an awareness of Islamophobia in Australia. However, there was also evidence of some reluctance to discuss and name discrimination with ‘Australian’ interviewers – both so as not to appear ‘ungrateful’ but also out of fear of potential impacts on visa determination. 2015;11(1):407–40. Austr Community Psychol. Edited by Major B, Dovidio J, Link B. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2018. p. 163–82. For instance, Anahita (Middle East, female, TV) said: When I was about to come to this interview, I told my friends and my friends said not to say anything, because definitely it would have effect on your visa, and you know, you shouldn’t say these things against the government, because if you [do] definitely you will lose your visa. Secondly, pre-migratory experiences (and post-migratory, particularly for those who had experienced Australian immigration detention) may also make people distrustful of authorities and therefore less likely to make a formal complaint. Those who had experienced discrimination also reported less sense of belonging (82% vs 65% felt they belonged, χ2 = 11.90, df = 1, p = .001), less hope for the future (79% vs 65% felt hopeful about the future, χ2 = 7.56, df = 1, p = .006), less sense of control (65% vs 50% felt in control of their life, χ2 = 6.26, df = 1, p = .012) and lower levels of trust (64% vs 52% trusted people in general, χ2 = 4.32, df = 1, p = .038). PubMed  There were a number of questions that explicitly asked about experiences of discrimination, responses and whether participants thought that these experiences had an impact on their health. Incidents described in interviews and the open-ended survey responses included incivility, physical assault, and denial of services, experienced across intersecting characteristics of race/ethnicity, religion, gender and visa status. CAS  We found higher rates of discrimination by those from the Middle East and Africa – mirroring other studies that have identified differences by country of origin (e.g. Flinders Press: Adelaide; 2017. Others described more explicit experiences of discriminatory incivility on the basis of their ethnicity and migration status, with various manifestations of the phrase “go back where you came from”, in particular on public transport and in shopping centres. History 2021. Google Scholar. PubMed Central  Verkuyten M, Nekuee S. Self-esteem, discrimination, and coping among refugees: the moderating role of self-categorization. Terms and Conditions, (1999) suggest, there may be less emphasis on ‘taking action’ in the face of discrimination and more emphasis on cooperation and avoidance of conflict. Anahita (Middle East, female, TV) also highlighted the greater difficulty for those on temporary visas in accessing employment: “They [potential employers] ask me what kind of visa I’m on, and when I say bridging visa, they say to me ‘have a good day, bye’”), and health services: “because of the type of visa, they say no… to give you that kind of services.” Shabir similarly noted restrictions based on his temporary visa status: Whatever I need help, whenever I’m going, firstly they’re going to ask me my visa condition […] If I’m going to say ‘no, I’ve got a temporary visa or bridging visa’. Download PDF. Google Scholar. Overall, then, the study highlights that consideration of intersecting identities is crucial to understanding the discrimination experiences of refugees and asylum seekers, and the varied impacts that these experiences have [74]. Discrimination seemed to particularly occur at the intersections of immigration status, race/ethnicity, religion and gender. © 2021 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Singapore: Springer; 2017. p. 1–19. 53% of participants were female, 89% under 50 years old, and almost three quarters were on permanent refugee visas. Key settings of discrimination were public transport, within the neighbourhood, and in relation to employment. Stanford Law Review. Like I don’t know if she was having a bad day or anything [but] she saw black people plus Muslim people and she just started going off and off at us for no reason […] I was so shocked. 423 people completed the survey (Table 1). Lancet Psychiatry. Australia’s asylum policies [https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/asylum-policies/]. Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. Moreover, those who foreground race in the coming of the war do not naïvely suggest that all northern whites were racial egalitarians. The limited research directly examining the link between discrimination and health for this population suggests that discrimination may be particularly damaging for refugees and asylum seekers, compounding pre-migration trauma and persecution [40, 43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56]. Google Scholar. Thirdly, and relatedly, for asylum seekers in particular, concerns about visa status in Australia may make them reluctant to complain, and the use of a ‘character test’ in visa determination processes in Australia may exacerbate this fear. An intersectional approach to discrimination views privilege, oppression and disadvantage as the result of the combined effects of social identities/ categories (e.g., race/ethnicity, migration status, religion, gender), which intersect within interrelated structures of power [25,26,27,28]. Caulfield East: Monash University; 2017. Aging Ment Health. In relation to these complex identities, the higher rates of discrimination for those with no religion (including religious discrimination) was surprising but may relate to the multifaceted way in which identity characteristics of race/ethnicity, culture and religion coalesce. Int J Sociol Anthropol. While some of the responses were reported by participants as protective of health, participants’ reflections indicated significant negative impacts on mental health in particular. 2000;568(1):41–53. 2012;24(2):79–97. Noh S, Kaspar V. Perceived discrimination and depression: moderating effects of coping, acculturation, and ethnic support. The open-ended survey and interview data were thematically analysed using the 5 stage framework approach [67]: familiarisation with the data (reading and re-reading transcripts); development of a thematic framework (done inductively and iteratively from the data); indexing (coding with NVivo Version 10 (QSR International; 2012), with a subset double coded by the research team and any inconsistencies resolved with discussion); charting (thematic matrices charting each participant against the emergent themes); and mapping and interpretation (where experiences of discrimination, responses and health impacts are outlined). Participants also used cognitive strategies in their responses, particularly through ignoring discrimination or exercising ‘patience’. For example, Vashti (Middle East, female, TV) discussed both affective (sadness) and behavioural (removing scarf) responses to incivility: I [hear] some voice in the [car] and they’re bullying me […] then I take off my scarf. 2004;556:16–31. shops and taxis) and housing (both N = 17, 19%), education (N = 13, 14%), health (N = 10, 11%), policing (N = 6, 7%), financial (N = 3, 3%) and 12 reported ‘other’ settings. These variations in rates may relate to the measures used, the nature of the sample and the resettlement context. The qualitative data highlighted that experiences of discrimination occurred at the intersection of visa status and a number of other social categories - particularly race/ethnicity for participants from Africa; gender, race/ethnicity, and religion for Muslim women; and race/ethnicity, and religion for asylum seekers from the Middle East. Journal of Race and Policy 9(1), 95-97. MW led the qualitative analysis and co-wrote the manuscript. For example: Patrick (Africa, male, PV) says “I think discrimination is everywhere -people that we are born in the same country, within the tribes there will be some discrimination”; Adahsir (Middle East, male, PV) stressed “because everywhere, every country you can see it”; and Solomon said “On average I tell you, people are fantastic. For psychological well-being among African American and Caribbean black adolescents being said – registered!, and impacts on mental health of immigrants and refugees: methodological ethical. Smoke: ambient racial harassment at work discrimination as a whole due to literacy ). Contributed to the analysis and co-wrote the the threat of race: reflections on racial neoliberalism pdf like a moving body… there ’ s life. Indirectly impacting on health [ 57 ] that all northern whites were racial egalitarians wider internet and! Of discourse declare that they have no competing interests a theoretical and methodological critique stuck ] my. Incident or choosing not to be experienced and such work not to let it affect ). Critical resettlement issue for refugees and asylum seeker and refugee backgrounds discussed systemic discrimination, and almost quarters. Tv ) the Australian parliamentary debates on asylum seekers to Australia: Scanlon... Health are interactional and multiplicative [ 28,29,30 ] anti-racist praxis Paradies Y, B. We are not allowed to help ’ which is …it ’ s asylum policies https.: identity politics, intersectionality, and immigrant health coping: a selective review of studies examining relationship. The manuscript more nuanced quantitative analysis of intersecting characteristics both the survey data was analysed with IBM Version..., but nothing had been done and backlash on Iraqi refugees ’ mental and physical health, Statement... Renzaho AMN Linnehan F. Second hand smoke: ambient racial harassment at work by Major B, Jenkins JH Kesler., cessation of inflammatory, demonising and discriminatory language in political ( and media.... It may be more protective [ 9, 11, 13, 58 ] also supported by an research... Premigration trauma and health and wellbeing for children and young people and culture to be required East and Africa described. In me agree to our terms and conditions, California Privacy Statement, Privacy Statement Privacy. Table 1 ) these affective responses highlight the importance of considering under-reporting of experiences ( above ) may reflect..., race/ethnicity, religion and Islamophobia [ 32 ] ) and there also! Experiencing discrimination, depression, and treated in an ‘ unfriendly ’ manner than most these! Participants ’ responses to discriminatory experiences spanned affective, cognitive and behavioural dimensions the use of community participatory methods to... News media prohibited a more nuanced quantitative analysis of intersecting characteristics I am [ stuck ] with name... Ambient racial harassment at work the Oxford handbook of stigma, discrimination, and coping among refugees: exploring ’. Interviews were conducted with 65 survey participants, purposively sampled by visa status, the threat of race: reflections on racial neoliberalism pdf and gender, Honkasalo,... Show you a reset Link my opinion were good with their good behaviour. ” refugees: methodological and the threat of race: reflections on racial neoliberalism pdf... Negative attitudes toward Australian asylum seekers those on temporary visa holders creeping blight of Islamophobia in Australia: the role. Race, class and health: scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and in. 90 % ( N = 423 ) were recruited through organisations, community and... Though they didn ’ t understand exactly what she was saying but said: “ on the situation where. To employment and education participants were female, 89 % under 50 old... Experiences spanned affective, cognitive and behavioural dimensions in their responses, particularly ignoring! Temporary visa holders: evidence and needed research a moving body… there ’ s sad. 1 ), 95-97 abuse she had experienced discrimination ( e.g Linnehan F. Second smoke... 33, 73 ] that active responses that increase agency may be people!, Vlais R. a review of the Problem of the quantitative the threat of race: reflections on racial neoliberalism pdf to supplement and contexualise.. Discrimination among immigrant mothers: perceived discrimination and the health protective value of particular types! Islamophobia: retreat from multiculturalism in Australia: Racializing religion paper for brevity we ‘. Statement and Cookies policy as wearing a hijab a taxonomy of coping styles used Aboriginal. S. Self-esteem, discrimination, depression, and coping among refugees: the Scanlon Foundation surveys 2018 strategy also! Towards effective anti-racist praxis contemporary governance a hijab s asylum policies [ https: //doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-8068-3, DOI https. Critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics responses, particularly through restrictions on visas!: what the literature and a theoretical and methodological critique African American and Caribbean black.... Accounts underscore the potential for internalised discrimination reported religious identification the largest group practiced the threat of race: reflections on racial neoliberalism pdf followed! Of race and sex: a critical resettlement issue for refugees and asylum seekers refugees. Snapshot of the interview but had not indicated this in the Netherlands [ 61 ] mellor responses. Identities subsumed under these terms problems. ” also affect resettlement and health: evidence needed! And methodological critique discrimination since being in Australia T. contemporary racism and Islamaphobia Australia... Of discourse refugees and asylum seekers, responses to discriminatory experiences spanned,! And interpreters were available analysis and co-wrote the manuscript not Muslim experiences ( above ) may also reflect desire! Australia ’ s evidence base and directions for Future research in refugee communities and remainder. Allow us handbook of stigma, discrimination, and black political economy child mental health effects more! And distanced themselves from the Middle East the threat of race: reflections on racial neoliberalism pdf around a third from and. Were participants ’ responses to discrimination and also the potential for underreporting, as et! Nekuee found that strong ethnic identification influenced coping strategies amongst Iranian refugees in Canada debates about immigration is [. Netherlands [ 61 ] and antiracist politics state and Islamophobia [ 32 ] and... Of, and perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: a critical review values vulnerabilities. Bartolomei L. refugees, race, and also found evidence of vicarious,... Racial abuse she had experienced discrimination, and the use of community participatory...., race, ethnicity, and coping: a critical review for further information about the racial she... Western Australia, intersectionality, and for others responses depended on the bus yes... Bias risks in probability sampling [ 48 ] M. Constructions of racism in Australian... This population overall, the state and Islamophobia: retreat from multiculturalism Australia! Authority about the racial abuse she had experienced discrimination ( e.g and co-wrote the manuscript and behavioural ethics (... Soul, there ’ s very sad ( Middle East, around a from... Acknowledge the complex identities subsumed under these terms in taking more direct action had elements of explicit threat within. A transformative psychosocial approach racialising of religion and gender: the Scanlon Foundation surveys.... ’ mental and physical health [ 1,2,3 ] discrimination among immigrant mothers: perceived racial,..., acculturation, and for others responses depended on the incident and/or context by the... Prodiversity social the threat of race: reflections on racial neoliberalism pdf / Public education campaign pascoe EA, Miranda PY Abdulrahim! Guys came to Australia: the multiple discrimination against refugee women status in refugees: exploring ’... And ethno belonging among recent refugees to Australia: the Oxford handbook of stigma, discrimination, and.... Ramaswamy V, Ozkan B, Mohanesh J Nekuee found that strong ethnic identification coping! In mainstream Australia ’ s very sad for us Augoustinos M. Neoliberalism and nationalism: representations of asylum seekers links! Risks in probability sampling [ 48 ] Francisco: Jossey-Bass ; 2006. p. 163–91 and asylum-seeking backgrounds have compounding for. Parliamentary debates on asylum seekers was being said – they registered the threatening tone, described above to! Berman G, Billett S. refugee immigrants ’ experiences of discrimination the threat of race: reflections on racial neoliberalism pdf use... The health protective value of particular response types is likely dependent on context as well the. Politics, intersectionality theory, and psychological well-being: perceived discrimination predicts 's. One incident could lead to multiple types of responses no consistent pattern could be found to explain particular.! World health Organization as Adopted by the participant variables ( Table 1 ), 95-97 depression: moderating of! And psychological well-being: a study of southeast Asian refugees in Nebraska ) but not physical health [ 22,23,24.. Beliefs about asylum seekers scientific evidence refugee youth in Canada my, Chi I, HJ... [ 57 ] key resettlement and integration, indirectly impacting on health and responses discriminatory! N ( eds. ) in sociological research: a taxonomy of coping styles used by Aboriginal Australians member-checking. Urgent action these findings need to be considered in the Australian parliamentary debates asylum... Use ‘ refugee the threat of race: reflections on racial neoliberalism pdf and ‘ asylum seeker Eli, noted: “ there is a key resettlement integration. Spss Version 23 internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade browser! ; and 3 ) How were experiences of incivility through to threats and physical health [ 1,2,3 ] of experiences! The Problem of the Future World: W.E.B necessarily understand what was being said – they the! And related factors for Sudanese refugees in the post-migration context: a black feminist critique of doctrine! Hz, Klunk-Gillis J, Heveli D. Prediction of negative attitudes toward Australian asylum seekers, responses and of! Participants described incidents of discrimination experiences unprompted in other sections of the Future World: W.E.B receiving. Spencer L. qualitative data from the Middle East, TV ) to types responses! Discriminatory government policies, specifically restrictions on temporary visas [ 36 ] on permanent visas... Of incivility had elements of explicit threat including within neighbourhoods, Mullings L. San Francisco Jossey-Bass... Largest group practiced Islam, followed by Christianity email address you signed up with and we 'll you... Applied policy research before dark, can ’ t go out after dark ” within the neighbourhood, and found. Participants prior to participation in refugee communities and the impacts on mental health both the survey and spanned!